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The Overton Firm

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CONSTRUCTION, REAL ESTATE, HOSPITALITY, SMALL BUSINESS & TAX LAW

CONSTRUCTION, REAL ESTATE, HOSPITALITY, SMALL BUSINESS & TAX LAW CONSTRUCTION, REAL ESTATE, HOSPITALITY, SMALL BUSINESS & TAX LAW

Arbitration Awards

 

The award

Requirements

What legal requirements are there for recognition of an  award? Must reasons be given for the award? Does the award need to be  reviewed by any other body?

The Federal Arbitration Act provides that an arbitral award “shall”  be confirmed, unless any of the narrow, enumerated grounds for vacatur is present. As stated in Florasynth, Inc v Pickholz 750  F.2d 171, 176 (2d Cir 1984), “the confirmation of an arbitration award  is a summary proceeding that merely makes what is already a final  arbitration award a judgment of the court".

For an international arbitral award, a party can apply to a district  court to confirm the award within three years of the making of the award  (9 USC Section 207). The party seeking recognition must furnish:

  • the duly authenticated original award or a duly certified copy;
  • the original arbitration agreement between the parties or a duly certified copy; and
  • an official or sworn translation when the award is not made in an official language (Article IV of the New York Convention).

For the recognition of a US domestic arbitral award, Section 9 of the act provides:

“If the parties in their agreement have agreed that a judgment of  the court shall be entered upon the award made pursuant to the  arbitration, and shall specify the court, then at any time within one  year after the award is made any party to the arbitration may apply to  the court so specified for an order confirming the award.”

When no court is designated, the act provides no time limits on an  application for the confirmation of an award. Under Section 13, the  party seeking enforcement must file several documents from the  underlying arbitration with the court, including:

  • the arbitration agreement;
  • any agreements regarding the selection or appointment of arbitrators;
  • any agreements regarding the making of the award; and
  • the award.

Under Section 9 of the act, the party seeking enforcement must also give notice to the adverse party.

There is no requirement that the award be reasoned. In United Steelworks of America v Enterprise Wheel & Car Corp, 363 US 593, 598, the court stated: “Arbitrators have no obligation to the court to give their reasons for an award.” In Sobel v Hertz, Warner & Co,  469 F.2d 1211, the court stated: “forcing arbitrators to explain their  award even when the grounds for it can be gleaned from the record will  unjustifiably diminish whatever efficiency the process now achieves”.

Timeframe for delivery

Are there any time limits on delivery of the award?

The Federal Arbitration Act places no time limits on rendering an  arbitral award. The parties are therefore free to decide on any time  restrictions or the issue can be left to the tribunal to resolve.  However, in the absence of agreement, domestic procedural rules may  require that the award be rendered within a specified timeframe (eg,  Rule R-45 of the Commercial Arbitration Rules and Mediation Procedures  of the American Arbitration Association, Including Procedures for Large,  Complex Commercial Disputes requires awards to be made within 30 days  of closing of the hearing). 

Remedies

Does the law impose limits on the available remedies? Are some remedies not enforceable by the court?

The Federal Arbitration Act places no limitations on the available  remedies. The parties are free to agree on the kinds of dispute and  available remedies that are available in the arbitration. In Mastrobuono v Shearson Lehman Hutton, 514 US 52, 58, the court stated:

“if contracting parties agree to include claims for punitive  damages within the issues to be arbitrated, the Federal Arbitration Act  ensures that their agreement will be enforced according to its terms”.

In Mitsubishi Motors Corp v Soler Chrysler-Plymouth, Inc,  473 US 614, 629 (1985), the court held that in an international  arbitration, an antitrust statutory claim with the possibility of being  awarded treble damages was arbitrable.

What interim measures are available? Will local courts issue interim measures pending constitution of the tribunal?

The Federal Arbitration Act does not address interim measures;  however, the district courts maintain original jurisdiction over  disputes that were first brought in federal court and then stayed  pending arbitration (9 USC Sections 3 and 4).

Whether the courts are authorised to grant interim measures can  depend on the agreement between the parties to submit their disputes to  arbitration; but, where authorised, courts can issue standard interim  measures. In Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith, Inc v Hovey,  726 F 2d 1286, 1292 (8th Cir 1983), the court held that “where the  Arbitration Act is applicable and no qualifying contractual language has  been alleged, the district court errs in granting injunctive relief”.  In Erving v Virginia Squires Basketball Club, 468 F 2d 1064,  1066 n 1, 1067 (2d Cir 1972), the court affirmed the grant of a  preliminary injunction pending arbitration where the contract expressly  provided for such relief and in Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith, Inc v Bradley,  756 F 2d 1048, 1054, the court allowed injunctive relief in the context  of an employment contract that contained a non-solicitation clause  because immediate relief was necessary for the clause to have any  effect.

Interest

Can interest be awarded?

If a domestic litigation ensues following arbitration, the courts can  award pre-judgment interest from the time that the award was rendered  until the date of the court decision (eg, in Ft Hill Builders, Inc v National Grange Mut Ins Co,  866 F.2d 11, 16 (1st Cir 1989), the court “confirm[ed] the arbitration  decision and award[ed] interest from the date of the arbitration  decision”). In such cases, the substantive law applicable to the  arbitration will determine whether pre-judgment interest can be applied  and, if so, at what rate.

With respect to post-judgment interest, absent an agreement between  the parties, the courts will assess statutory interest pursuant to 28  USC Section 1961. Further, arbitrators are not authorised to grant  post-judgment interest absent an agreement between the parties. In Tricon Energy Ltd v Vinmar Int’l, Ltd,  718 F 3d 448, 457 (5th Cir 2013), the court stated: “the circuits have  unanimously agreed that ‘an arbitration panel may not establish a  post-judgment interest rate’” (quoting Newmont USA Ltd v Ins Co of N Am,  615 F.3d 1268, 1277 (10th Cir 2010), in which the court held that the  lower court had erred in modifying the final award’s granting of  interest because the arbitrators had the authority to determine the  issue since post-judgment interest was arbitrable under the parties’  agreement).

At what rate?

Courts can allow the awarding of pre-judgment interest pursuant to  the substantive law governing the dispute, and post-judgment interest at  the statutory interest rate pursuant to 28 USC Section 1961 or a  non-statutory rate depending on the agreement between the parties. In Newmont USA Ltd (1268, 1276-77), the court stated:

“An agreement to apply a post-judgment interest rate other than  that § 1961 specifies is enforceable so long as the parties indicate  their intent to override the statute using ‘clear, unambiguous and  unequivocal language’” (quoting Soc’y of Lloyd’s v Reinhart, 402 F.3d 982, 1004 (10th Cir 2005)).

Finality

Is the award final and binding?

Although awards are final, domestic awards are subject to review  according to the enumerated grounds in Section 11 of the Federal  Arbitration Act and international awards are subject to review according  to the enumerated grounds in the New York Convention (9 USC Section  207).

What if there are any mistakes?

If there is a mistake, a party may apply to a US district court  “wherein the award was made” and petition for “an order modifying or  correcting the award” (9 USC Section 11). Under Sections 11 (a)-(c),  there are grounds for modifying or correcting an award where:

  • there is an evident material miscalculation of figures or an evident  material mistake in the description of any person, thing or property  referred to in the award;
  • the arbitration tribunal has awarded on a matter not submitted to  it, unless it is a matter not affecting the merits of the decision on  the matter submitted; or
  • the award is imperfect in matter of form not affecting the merits of the controversy.

Can the parties exclude by agreement any right of appeal or other recourse that the law of your jurisdiction may provide?

In Hall Street Associations, LLC v Mattel, Inc 552 US 576,  590 (2008), the Supreme Court held that the grounds for vacating an  award enumerated in Section 11 are the exclusive grounds. An agreement  by the parties to exclude the limited review provided for by the Federal  Arbitration Act is likely not enforceable. In Kyocera Corp v Prudential-Bache T Servs, 341 F 3d 987, 1000, the court held that:

“a federal court may only review an arbitral decision on the  grounds set forth in the Federal Arbitration Act. Private parties have  no power to alter or expand those grounds, and any contractual provision  purporting to do so is, accordingly, legally unenforceable.” 

Appeal

What is the procedure for challenging awards?

The applicable procedure for challenging an award depends on where the award was rendered.

For an international award covered by the New York Convention, a  party may apply to the district court to refuse enforcement and  recognition according to the grounds enumerated in Article V of the  convention (9 USC Section 204 grants original jurisdiction to the  district courts for issues arising out of the New York Convention).

For a domestic arbitral award, a party may apply to the district  court for an order vacating the award (9 USC Section 10(a)). When  applying to the district court to modify or vacate an award, the party  must give its counterparty notice of the application (9 USC Section 12).

However, the Federal Arbitration Act does not provide district courts  with federal-question jurisdiction, so parties must generally show  subject-matter jurisdiction through diversity of the parties. If the  parties are not completely diverse (or the amount in controversy does  not exceed $75,000), then the award must be challenged in state court  under the applicable state law.

On what grounds can parties appeal an award?

If an award is governed by the New York Convention, a district court  “shall confirm the award unless it finds one of the grounds for refusal  or deferral of recognition or enforcement of the award specified in the  said Convention” (9 USC Section 207). According to Article V(1)(a)-(b)  of the convention, the recognition and enforcement of an award may be  refused under any of the following circumstances:

  • The parties to the agreement referred to in Article II were – under  the law applicable to them – under some incapacity; or the agreement is  not valid under the law to which the parties have subjected it or –  failing any indication thereon – under the law of the country where the  award was made.
  • The party against which the award is invoked was not given proper  notice of the appointment of the arbitrator or of the arbitration  proceedings, or was otherwise unable to present its case.
  • The award deals with a difference not contemplated by, or not  falling within, the terms of the submission to arbitration, or contains  decisions on matters beyond the scope of the submission to arbitration.  If the decisions on matters submitted to arbitration can be separated  from those not submitted, the part of the award that contains decisions  on matters submitted to arbitration may be recognised and enforced.
  • The composition of the arbitral authority or the arbitral procedure  was not in accordance with the agreement of the parties or – failing  such agreement – was not in accordance with the law of the country where  the arbitration took place.
  • The award is not yet binding on the parties or has been set aside or  suspended by a competent authority of the country in which (or under  the law of which) the award was made.

Under Article V(2)(a)-(b), the award may also be refused when the district court finds the following:

  • “The subject matter of the difference is not capable of settlement by arbitration under the law of that country; or
  • The recognition or enforcement of the award would be contrary to the public policy of that country.” 

Regarding US domestic awards, under Section 10(a)(1)-(4) of the  Federal Arbitration Act, the grounds for challenging or vacating an  award in federal court are as follows:

  • The award was procured by corruption, fraud or undue means;
  • There was evident partiality or corruption in the arbitrators, or either of them;
  • The arbitrators were guilty of misconduct in: 
    • refusing to postpone the hearing on sufficient cause shown;
    • refusing to hear evidence pertinent and material to the controversy; or
    • any other misbehaviour by which the rights of any party have been prejudiced; or
  • The arbitrators exceeded their power, or so imperfectly executed it  that a mutual, final and definite award on the subject matter submitted  was not made. 

However, if an award is challenged in state court, the applicable state law will determine the possible grounds for vacatur.

Enforcement

What steps can be taken to enforce the award if there is a failure to comply?

The award creditor can apply to the district court and obtain a  judgment enforcing the award. The award-judgment creditor will have the  available recourses under US law for the enforcement of domestic  judgments (9 USC Section 13). 

Can awards be enforced in local courts?

Yes ‒ domestic and international awards can be enforced in US  district courts. Domestic awards can also generally be enforced in state  courts under the applicable state law.

How enforceable is the award internationally?

Arbitral awards rendered in the United States are enforceable in  foreign jurisdictions where the New York Convention is in force (Article  III).

If enforcement is sought in a state that is not a party to the New  York Convention, the awards properly entered for confirmation before a  US court will have the same weight as a domestic court judgment and thus  be enforceable to the same extent as a US court judgment abroad (9 USC  Section 13).

To what extent might a state or state entity successfully  raise a defence of state or sovereign immunity at the enforcement stage?

The state action doctrine is precluded under the Federal Arbitration Act. According to Section 15 of the act:

“Enforcement of arbitral agreements, confirmation of arbitral  awards, and execution upon judgments based on orders confirming such  awards shall not be refused on the basis of the Act of State doctrine.”

A state or state entity may successfully raise a sovereign immunity  defence at the enforcement stage in limited circumstances. However,  under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, a foreign state waives its  sovereign immunity from the jurisdiction of US courts when it agrees to  arbitrate disputes with a private party (28 USC Section 1605(a)(6)).  However, this waiver of immunity does not extend to later enforcement  proceedings. Whether an award could reach the assets of a foreign state  in the United States would depend on whether the assets independently  satisfied the exemptions to sovereign immunity (28 USC Sections  1610-1611). For example, in Letelier v Republic of Chile, 748  F.2d 790, 779, the court held that the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act  “did not allow execution against the assets of LAN, the Chilean National  airlines” because an act of political terrorism was not covered by the  exceptions to sovereign immunity enumerated in the act.

Are there any other bases on which an award may be challenged, and if so, by what?

An award may be challenged for “manifest disregard of the law”. The  Supreme Court has held that the enumerated grounds for vacating an award  listed in Section 10 of the Federal Arbitration Act are exclusive  grounds (Hall Street Associates LLC, 576, 584-85). However,  there is a split among various federal circuit courts of appeal  concerning whether manifest disregard is a valid basis for vacating an  award or whether it is merely a shorthand for the statutory grounds  listed in Section 10. In Compare Affymax, Inc v Ortho-McNeil-Janssen Pharm, Inc,  660 F 3d 281, 284-85 (7th Cir 2011), the court held that manifest  disregard is an invalid ground for challenging an award, while in Stolt-Nielsen SA v AnimalFeeds Int’l Corp,  548 F 3d 85, 95 (2d Cir 2008), the court found that an arbitrator who  is in manifest disregard of the law is “exceeding their powers” under  Section 10. 


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